How to run faster and further

Written by: Joshua Lui (24-U4)

Designed by: Xavier Lee (24-O2)

Many factors enable us to go faster and farther when it comes to running. These factors range from immutable ones like natural talent to those that are harder to alter, like muscle fibre composition, to variable ones such as training methods and running techniques.

Fortunately, even those who are not naturally gifted can compensate for this with the right training.

But the question lies, how do I train correctly? Or more fundamentally, what is the right way to run? 

This article will discuss more about some key training principles and how they simulate the necessary adaptations.

Part I: The principles

Supercompensation

When it comes to training, we seek to gain as much physical adaptation as possible through a process called supercompensation. This phase occurs when our body is first put under stress, goes through a recovery period, and finally emerges stronger after its recovery.

As shown in the generalised graph above, after the initial training phase which brings our fitness level down temporarily, there is a period of recovery followed by a supercompensation phase allowing our overall fitness level to surpass the initial level.

This graph also illustrates that with every training, the recovery phase is just as important or possibly more crucial than the stimulus itself in the adaptation process. 

Consider this: what if someone starts training during the recovery phase when his fitness level is far below normal? If this is a one-off occasion, he could get away with it and just compromise on his adaptation effectiveness. But if this runner continues to stack his training too closely together, to a point where his fitness level declines more significantly with each session, then this is a classic example of overtraining. Overtraining not only prevents a runner from improving effectively, but it also significantly increases his chances of getting injured. While overtraining may seem unlikely for a recreational runner, it is far more common than expected.

It should be noted that the time for recovery and supercompensation will differ from training to training and person to person, and there is no easy guarantee that you are fully rested at a given time. However, asking yourself how you feel at any point of a run, or observing your energy levels throughout the day are great gauges of your recovery. 

The converse to overtraining is undertraining. Supercompensation is paired with the concept of reversibility which suggests that most physical adaptations or improvement is not permanent. Therefore, to prevent your efforts from being wasted, consistent training must be present. 

In essence, supercompensation involves both training and recovery, where both are balanced and not neglected to prevent overtraining and undertraining.

Specificity

As mentioned earlier, many factors enable us to run faster. It is unfortunately unfeasible to focus on all of them at once, and far more effective to specialise each training for a certain factor. This is especially true when we take into account that everyone has different limiting factors to which more time should be devoted. This also implies that an aspiring runner will be involved in more than one type of training since there are multiple factors to work on.

Part II: The key factors

Aerobic Base

Out of all the factors we try to improve during training, the Aerobic Base (AB) is arguably the most pivotal factor in enabling us to run faster or farther. If our running ability is like a building, then our AB is the foundation and groundwork for it. If we spent all our time working on other factors without enough focus on our base, it would be like building a skyscraper over loose sand: a spell for trouble.

Unlike some of the other factors such as V̇O₂max or Lactate Threshold, which is covered later, the AB has a few definitions and is a loosely used term. To complicate things further, there is no specific metric to measure the AB, unlike the other factors.

In this article, I define AB as the foundational adaptation of the body towards aerobic activity. Examples or evidence of improvements to the AB include increased mitochondrial density, more blood capillaries per muscle fibre and higher concentrations of essential enzymes for aerobic activity. 

Essentially, improving your AB makes your body more efficient in consuming and utilising oxygen in producing energy via aerobic respiration, while increasing your overall endurance. 

As the AB is volume-dependent, runners should maximise their time spent running at lower intensities rather than higher intensities but shorter durations. Typically, this would mean running at a pace where you could hold a conversation or sustain comfortably. In other words, focus less on your pace and more on the time spent running and the total distance clocked.

Ever wondered why the Kenyans dominate long-distance events? While there are a multitude of possible reasons, there is a high chance it is their lifestyle and AB that led them to victory.

A paper published in 1995 by Bengt Saltin, which compared the physiological differences between Scandinavian and Kenyan runners, showed that the Scandinavians had 4-5 capillaries per muscle cell in their quadriceps while the Kenyan runners had 7-8. At the same time, there were higher concentrations of 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA-dehydrogenase in the Kenyans, an essential enzyme for the metabolism of lipids.

Saltin hypothesised that the physiological differences were due to the differences in lifestyle between the Scandinavians and the Kenyans, in which the Kenyans were reported to be walking and running long distances since young. It was thought that such long periods of low-intensity aerobic activity enabled for great aerobic adaptations and building of the AB. 

Although it may be contentious and crude to completely attribute the Kenyan's dominance to their stronger AB, it is undeniable that the AB is a crucial factor that enables them.

To conclude, although it may be rather abstract, the AB should be the pinnacle of focus for runners running middle to long distances.

Lactate Threshold

To produce energy, we undergo respiration which converts fuel into Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP). Respiration can either be aerobic or anaerobic, in which the latter is in the absence of oxygen. Another difference between the two is the formation of lactic acid from pyruvate.

Lactate is often wrongly accused as an antagonist. However,  it is the hydrogen ions that cause problems by decreasing blood pH levels. We measure lactate as it gives us a good gauge of the buildup of other problematic byproducts such as hydrogen ions.

At rest, our Blood Lactate Concentration (BLa) is approximately 1.0 mmol per litre of blood. BLa takes into account both the production and clearance of lactate and is essentially a measure of the net accumulation of lactate.

From the graph above, at intensities low enough, our body can clear lactate faster than produce it. At the first Lactate Threshold (LT1), BLa starts to increase steadily. The second Lactate Threshold (LT2) is usually defined as the point at which a non-linear increase in BLa occurs, typically at 3.0-4.0mmol/L. 

By this model, to run faster and farther, it is necessary to reduce lactate production and increase lactate clearance. This virtually pushes our LT2 and LT1 to a faster-associated running pace. This can be done by increasing the proportion of energy derived from aerobic respiration or improving lactate transport via MCT1 and MCT4 in skeletal muscles.

vV̇O₂max(V̇O₂max and Running Economy)

As we run, we consume oxygen to produce energy. Intuitively, as we run faster, we require more energy and therefore consume greater volumes of oxygen. Our oxygen consumption can be measured as V̇O₂, the volume of oxygen uptake. The absolute value for V̇O₂ is given in ml. However, V̇O₂ is often represented as ml/min/kg, indicating the volume of oxygen uptake per minute, per kilogram of body mass.

It was first hypothesised and discovered by A. V. Hill in 1923, that at a certain speed, our body is unable to consume more oxygen even as we run faster. This maximal oxygen uptake is known as our V̇O₂max, and the associated velocity at our V̇O₂max is known as vV̇O₂max. Through clinical data and research, a runner can typically stay at vV̇O₂max for about 11 minutes. Unfortunately, due to the unstandardised test procedures by researchers, this value is sometimes reported to be as short as 5 minutes. For simplicity, we will take the duration to be about 11 minutes.

Consider 2 runners with vV̇O₂max 15km/h and 20km/h. The slower runner would have clocked 2.75km while the faster one would have done 3.67km in 11 minutes. In other words, it is imperative to improve the vV̇O₂max to run both faster and farther. (Unfortunately, a greater V̇O₂max does not always correlate with better performance. Joan Benoit Samuelson was a well-documented marathon runner, whose improvements in marathon timings came without an improvement with V̇O₂max. Likewise, there have been reported athletes whose performance decreased despite an increase in V̇O₂max. Thus, do take this with a pinch of salt.)

In the graph above, 2 runners with rather large differences in V̇O₂max seem to have the same vV̇O₂max. This is possible because there is another big factor affecting vV̇O₂max, Running Economy (RE).

RE is a huge factor in running performance, with a wide spectrum of indicators and a loose definition much like the AB. RE is often associated with the efficiency in substrate utilisation and oxygen consumption. In this case, we will focus on the latter, which is reflected by the gradient in the graph above. A better RE would hence be represented by a gentler gradient (Runner 2) which has a smaller change in V̇O₂  per change in running velocity. Essentially, this means you require less oxygen at the same speed.

Instinctively, to improve vV̇O₂max,it is necessary to work on both our V̇O₂max and RE. Although running at every intensity, whether high or low, would benefit both V̇O₂max and RE, High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)  may display greater benefits. However, it is far more nuanced than just doing the Norwegian 4x4 or Tabata sprints. To effectively improve both V̇O₂max and RE, a well-periodised training plan which includes training at various intensities is necessary to improve the effectiveness of HIIT.

Conclusion

But how do I craft a training plan? More importantly, how and where do I start? “Are you going to leave me hanging just like this?”

Unfortunately, there are many more crucial details to get into, and this article barely scratches the surface of running. Due to word constraints, an in-depth training guide must be provided elsewhere. For those interested in learning how to apply these principles and put them into practice, or simply find out more about this topic, I strongly recommend checking the books this article references.

Daniels’ RunningFormula by the renowned coach and physiologist Jack Daniels does the trick for an in-depth guide to start running. 

If you prefer a slightly more modern approach, check out Faster Road Racing: 5K to Half Marathon by Pete Pfitzinger. 

Running to the Top by Arthur Lydiard shines a light on the beginning of modern-day periodisation. 

Lastly, my favourite and the book I would recommend to everyone is Science of Running by Steve Magness. Science of Running goes in-depth into both biology and exercise physiology, combining the world of science with coaching. I must preface that it is a rather hard read without any prior knowledge. Thus, it would be best if this is only read after reading at least one of the previous books.

A word of caution to all readers, there is no “magic workout” when it comes to seeking performance. Any influencer or even doctor who imposes a single regiment with no flexibility such as “only running in Zone 2” is a red flag. Although I strongly recommend at least reading one of the books mentioned above, ChatGPT is a rather sound option when looking for a training plan. Simply input a prompt with your goal and days of training. 

With that, thank you for reading this lengthy article. I do hope you can take something away from this. It would be great if I have convinced you that there is a world of science behind running, something I am ever so passionate about. I wish you all the best in your pursuit of performance.